Essays by Joan Wilkinson
ESSAYS
1. Religion as Depicted in
Domestic Manners of the Americans (Fanny Trollope)
2. Religion in The Vicar of
Wrexhill (Fanny Trollope)
3. The Role of Religion in
The Widow Barnaby (Fanny Trollope)
4. Three Cousins and
Religion (Fanny Trollope)
RELIGION AS DEPICTED IN
DOMESTIC MANNERS OF THE
AMERICANS
Fanny Trollope, born 1779, was the daughter of an Anglican Vicar who, for many years, paid a curate to look after his parish whilst he concentrated on mechanical and engineering inventions. By the time Fanny wrote her first book this sort of pluralism would certainly have been frowned upon. Fanny's background gave her a deep respect and reverence for religious practice but not for the flamboyant and enthusiastic Evangelicalism which she encountered in America and for which she saved her severest criticism in her observations of Revival meetings. Unlike George Eliot and Mrs Gaskell, Fanny Trollope makes clear to us her personal opinion, there is no attempt made at impartiality.
REVIVAL MEETINGS
There are three separate and
detailed descriptions of Revival meetings all of which are basically the same in
content but from an organisational point of view quite different.
On the first occasion (P60) the Revival takes place in Cincinnati where
various churches and chapels are used by itinerant preachers who lodge in the
houses of their respective followers. All denominations are involved but for the
Catholic, Unitarian and Quaker communities. There is great energy in the
community and time not spent in church is spent in people's homes at prayer
meetings where "they eat, drink, pray, sing, hear confessions and make
converts." (P61)
The second venue the author describes (P126) is in a wild district of Indiana
where a Camp-Meeting is held on the verge of an unbroken forest. Followers
arrive in carriages and stay in tents, singing and praying throughout the night.
Fifteen preachers preached in rotation day and night from Tuesday to Saturday.
In Baltimore the author describes the "the season of the 'Conference'" (P159)
which entailed preachers working in groups within the churches in the evenings
throughout the week. There is no mention that the preachers were from outside
Baltimore.
In all three instances the similarities are far greater than the differences.
In all cases the women experience these occasions as important social outlets
for their energies giving them opportunities to entertain, dress up and let go
of their inhibitions. In Cincinnati Fanny is told by the women that they will
"be constantly engaged during the revival". (P60) In Indiana the Camp-Meeting
gives the women a legitimate opportunity for leaving the home and mostly with
other women. In all instances the number of women far outnumber men.
In Baltimore we are told that theatres close during the "Conference Season"
implying that the Revival Meetings perform a valuable social function especially
for the women. The author observes the influence which Ministers have over the
women and is very critical of husbands who allow the situation to develop where
wives and daughters behave in an outrageous manner within the religious context
of a Revival meeting.
Common to Revival, Camp-Meeting or Conference Season is the order and content
of service. D.W. Bebbington writes in Evangelicalism in Modern Britain
(1) that the
spontaneity of revivalism began to change in Britain following the publication
in 1839 of Lectures on Revivals of Religions written by the American
Charles Finney. In Fanny Trollope's book we can see that the process of "planned
revivals" in America was already well under way in 1830, five years before
Finney's book was published in America. It is interesting to note this American
influence on the development of British Revivalism in the nineteenth century.
Along with the planning, Finney stressed the technique of the isolated "anxious
seat" for the "troubled sinner in search of salvation". (2)
Fanny Trollope gives detailed descriptions of the "performance" of the
preachers as they work their congregations into a frenzied state. The author
estimated that 2,000 people attended the Camp-Meeting services. The extempore
and offensively familiar praying is followed by a hymn and then preaching of a
ghastly and violent kind where the "enormous depravity of man as he comes from
the hands of his Maker" (Original Sin) is followed by a grotesque picture of
hell and damnation which can be expected if man does not repent of his sins. The
preacher works himself into a foaming frenzy with eyes rolled followed by a
"languishing look to his supporters on each side, and as if to express his
feeble state, sat down and wiped the drops of agony from his brow". (P.63) The
author considers "the acting was excellent". (P.63) The next preacher asks the
congregation if the words of their "dear brother" has reached them. The previous
violent language is contrasted by the description of a "dear gentle Jesus" who
will save those who come forward to the 'anxious bench' and repent. The doctrine
of the atonement of Jesus Christ is implied throughout.
Fanny Trollope notes that this 'anxious bench' is usually called 'the pen'
where mostly young women willingly go to where the preachers await them. The
process of confession throws these women into something akin to convulsions. The
more they confess and "wrestled with the Lord" the more the preachers comfort
and support them through close physical contact. "It was a frightful sight to
behold innocent, young creatures, in the gay morning of existence, thus seized
upon, horror struck, and rendered feeble and enervated for ever." (P64) Whilst
this continued the crowd repeated the words, "Amen! Amen! Jesus! Jesus! Glory!
Glory!" From her detached position Fanny Trollope recognizes the sexual
undertones of the whole event. "Many of these wretched creatures were beautiful
young females… I watched their tormentors breathing into their ears
consolations that tinged the pale cheek with red." (P131) At the Camp Meeting
the morning following the above events she "recognized the pale face as a
demoniac of the night simpering beside a swain to whom she carefully
administered hot coffee and eggs" (P132) as if the previous night had been spent
dancing.She was to use these observation in her detailed characterization of the
Vicar of Wrexhill published in 1837.
In spite of the horrendous portrayal the writer gives of the Revival meetings
it must be noted that, from other information gleaned from the book, these seem
to be the only opportunities which the American women of that time had for
acceptable or welcome activities outside the confines of the home and family.
Considering how she portrays the men as constantly engaged in making money or
talking politics it should not be surprising that Revivalism should speak to the
unfulfilled female sex of early nineteenth century America.
ITINERANT PREACHERS AND MINISTERS
From the above examination of
Revival Meetings it is clear that the role of the itinerant preacher was central
in spreading 'The Word' in the early days of independence.
The author writes of her visit to a Cottage Prayer Meeting in the village of
Mohawk in Ohio. She describes the grim looking appearance of the itinerant
preacher; "his dress, the cut of his hair, and his whole appearance, strongly
recalled the idea of one of Cromwell's fanatics" (P98). After expounding for two
hours on "hope" they all fell onto their knees for half an hour of extempore
prayer "a rant of miserable, low, familiar jargon". (P99)
These preachers who rode from house to house were paid handsomely and
provided with best meat and drink. …the trade was an excellent one, for that
many a gude wife bestowed more than a tithe of what her gude man trusted to her
keeping, in rewarding the zeal of these self-chosen apostles." (P99)
It would appear that in the Presbyterian churches the women looked to provide
well for their ministers. The author describes a "spinning visit" (P270)
which took place once each year. A member of each family in the congregation
would take articles necessary for house-keeping. Poorer members would leave
their offerings in a basket by the door whilst selected ladies would arrange the
tea-party when the gifts were handed over.
MINISTERS AND WOMEN
The power which ministers seemed to hold over the women troubled Fanny Trollope greatly. She relates a story told to her, a story which must have influenced her depiction of Mr Cartwright in "The Vicar of Wrexhill". A widowed father of three daughters welcomed an itinerant preacher into his home. The youngest daughter fell prey to his charms and resented the advice of her sisters not to encourage the man. "The young girl's feelings for him seem to have been a curious mixture of spiritual awe and earthly affection." (P214) Eventually the father noted the "covert passion that gleamed through the eyes of his godly visitor, and he saw too, the pallid anxious look which had settled on the young brow of his daughter." (214) The preacher was chased from both home and town but later "no less than seven unfortunate girls produced living proofs of the wisdom of the worthy father." (P214)
MEN WOMEN AND RELIGION
What our author could not understand
was the willingness of American men generally to allow their wives and daughters
to get so caught up in religious fervour which had at its centre the
relationship of the preacher or minister to his congregation.
She tells of a visit she made to Hoboken Gardens near New York. Each Sunday
afternoon the gentleman owner of the said gardens opened them up to the public.
Pleasure trips were arranged to ferry the visitors over the river. "Many
thousand persons were scattered through the grounds; of these we ascertained, by
repeatedly counting, that nineteen out of twenty were men. The ladies were at
church." (P267) She was appalled that the men of America could enjoy whiskey and
tobacco taken in the open-air on a Sunday afternoon whilst leaving "those they
love best on earth, bound in iron chains of a most tyrannical fanaticism."
(P266)
In the description of the Quaker Meeting House in Philadelphia we are told
that "the men and women are separated by a rail which divides it into two equal
parts." (P212) Furthermore there are separate entrances for either sex. However,
Fanny Trollope has no crticism with the 'singular kind of worship'. (P213)
The balance of men and women attending church differs between towns. In
Washington, for instance there is seen to be "a greater proportion of gentlemen
at church...than anywhere else." (P174)
Regardless of denomination or place the dominant theme is the opportunity
which the women take to dress up in fine clothes to attend church.
Another opportunity for American women of status to dress up is provided by
the weekly meeting of the Dorcas Society where such things as pin-cushions are
made. This is yet another subject lifted and used in the later book "The Vicar
of Wrexhill". The author suggests that without this employment days would be
pretty barren for such women.
It is interesting to note that in New York "they have several chapels, in
which negro ministers officiate" (P271) and only here does the author find that
the women are treated with some respect: "I have often, particularly on a
Sunday, met groups of negroes, elegantly dressed, and I have been sometimes
amused by observing the very superior air of gallantry assumed by the men, when
in attendance on their belles, to that of the whites in similar circumstances."
(P271)
ESTABLISHMENT
Fanny Trollope was constantly
comparing the coarseness of American religious practices with the more refined
state of the Established Church of England. It is in this area that her Tory
roots are made plain.
She could not understood how a nation which considered themselves intelligent
could prefer their form of religion "to a form established by the wisdom and
piety of the ablest and best among the erring sons of men, solemnly sanctioned
by the nation's law, and rendered sacred by the use of their fathers." (P99)
However, in her later work "The Vicar of Wrexhill" it seems that all was not
well in the Established Church of England. Perhaps Fanny Trollope herself is
reflecting on the Church of England as remembered from her childhood. On the
other hand it could be that she was correct about the value of having some sort
of establishment to act as an anchor. By the end of the century the Established
Church in England was in fact a very broad church, one of which she might have
approved. "It is impossible, in witnessing all these unseemly vagaries, not to
recognise the advantages of an established church as a sort of head-quarters for
quiet unpresuming Christians…" (P85) It is worth noting that all of Fanny
Trollope's heroines are just such quiet, unpresuming Christians.
She is very clear that an established church is necessary for church order,
social order and as a means of providing Christian teaching for scattered
populations who otherwise have to marry, christen and bury without a Christian
minister. An established church was needed to provide a middle-ground between
Sectarian extremism and atheism.
SCHISM
Students of religion are often
perplexed as to why religious practice is so vibrant in America to this day and
yet in England there was a steady falling away throughout the twentieth century.
Fanny Trollope observed that :"The Americans are perpetually repeating that
the foundation-stone of their liberty is fixed on the doctrine, that every man
is free to form his own opinions, and to promulgate them in candour, and in
moderation." (P280) To be well received in America one had to belong to one of
the many religious factions and be part of a congregation. Family members could
belong to various denominations and thereby 'move in the best society that
America affords". (P100) It is difficult to see this position being accepted in
the England of earlier centuries where schism has divided families and
communities often resulting in violence. However, it may be salient to point out
that it was during the last decade of the eighteenth and first decade of the
nineteenth century which saw the greatest number of schisms within Methodism
that saw the greatest growth in numbers.
CONCLUSION
In providing us with a comprehensive
picture of religion in 1820/30s America Fanny Trollope also offers us
autobiographical insights into her own likes and dislikes.
She was not critical of all religious practises and organisations outside the
principle of establishment. She appreciated sincerity and simplicity yet hated
hypocrisy and cant.
Unitarianism in England had always been at the very edge of dissent yet she
writes in glowing terms of the movement in America: "Dr Channing … as a
preacher has, perhaps, hardly a rival anywhere. This gentleman is an Unitarian,
and I was informed by several persons well acquainted with the literary
characters of the country, that nearly all their distinguished men were of this
persuasion." (P244) In Baltimore, where there are a vast number of churches and
chapels: "the Unitarian church is the handsomest I have ever seen dedicated to
that mode of worship." (P158)
In spite of pointing to the advantages of an established church, "as a sort
of head-quarters for quiet unpresuming Christians" (P85) she had a breadth of
mind which appreciated that which she considered sincere and honest. "The best
sermon that I listened to, was in a Methodist church, from the mouth of a Piquot
Indian. It was impossible not to be touched by the simple sincerity of this poor
man… He gave a picture frightfully eloquent of the decay of his people under
the united advance and intemperance of the white men." (P256)
It was Fanny Trollope's moral judgements which so offended her American
readers and those same moral judgements which fuelled the storylines of the many
novels which were to follow as she fearlessly tackled the many moral issues of
her day.
1. D.W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern Britain -
A history from the
1730s to the 1980s, Routledge,
1989, p.116.
2. Ibid., p.116
Religion in The Vicar of Wrexhill
The book opens on an idyllic rural
scene set in Mowbray Park on the 2nd May 1833. There is balance and harmony as
the Mowbray family open their grounds and home to the local community who are to
share in the celebrations of Charles Mowbray's 'coming of age'. '...the fete
given on the occasion was intended to include every human being in the parish,
besides about a hundred more, neighbours and friends, who came from a greater
distance to witness and share in the festivities.' (P. 3) This essay sets out to
contrast the divisions within family and community caused by the introduction of
the exclusive evangelical theology of William Jacob Cartwright a vicar of the
Church of England, against the harmonious inclusiveness of traditional
Anglicanism. At the same time as the theology and religious practices are
examined the question of power relationships will be considered, particularly
between clergymen and women. The question as to why Evangelicalism appealed to
so many women must be asked. It must be remembered throughout though that this
is a novel and questions as to the veracity of the picture which is painted must
be borne in mind.
Almost every page of the novel presents a portrait of an Evangelicalism which
is extreme in its Calvinist presentation. This must, at the outset, alert us to
the author's interpretation of Anglican Evangelicalism of the 1830s. Not only is
the Vicar shown as holding Calvinist ideals but also as a Methodist. In fact the
Evangelicalism of this time was known more for its Arminian theology and part of
its appeal was due to the universal message that salvation through faith was
available for all. This hardly fits in with the picture we are given of the
Vicar of Wrexhill. This being said it is true that by the 1830s a second
generation of Church of England Evangelicals were much more confident in getting
their message across and the language of the Vicar with its threat of hell and
damnation for those who would not repent of their sins depicts the fear of an
almighty and judgmental God speaking through his appointed saint, William Jacob
Cartwright. Mr Cartwright is 'a Cambridge man' which alerts us to the author's
condemnation of the Evangelical influence at this university. The Revd. Charles
Simeon, Vicar of Holy Trinity, Cambridge, (1783-1836) was an inspiration to many
of the leading religious and political leaders of the day. The Clapham Sect
including Wilberforce and Venn were known as 'the saints in politics' and were
influential in bringing their Evangelical beliefs into the political and social
arena.
The Vicar of Wrexhill is introduced to the story following the death of the
two leading men in the community. 'Mr Mowbray had been so deeply yet so
tranquilly loved by every member of his family.' (P.11) The name of the previous
Vicar, Mr Wallace, is continuously referred to throughout the story to highlight
the odious practices of William Cartwright. At an earlier date it would have
been the norm for Mr Wallace's son to follow in his father's footsteps but in
1817 the Simeon Trust had been formed to facilitate the purchase of livings in
order to install Evangelical clergymen so at the very outset of the story we
learn of young Master Wallace being forced to leave his home to make way for an
Evangelical clergyman.
The religion of Mr Wallace, and the heroes and heroines of the novel, is
shown to be more traditional and the wisdom of the Established Church much
revered. The extempore prayers and extravagant language of the new Vicar is
painful to those who prefer their religion to be more modest and yet shown
ultimately to be more profound. The austere nature of Evangelicalism initially
prompts the new Vicar to conclude that the Mowbray family are irreligious. He is
surprised to be asked by Charles to pray at his father's coffin. "'I trust,
sir,' interrupted young Mowbray almost in a whisper, 'that you do not suppose us
unused to prayer, because we have rejoiced in the blessings which Heaven has
bestowed?'" (P.16) However, the scene is set at this early stage with 'extempore
prayer, by no means ill suited to the occasion, though it was not, as poor
Charles had expected, chosen from among the many solemn and beautiful orisons
which the Church has furnished or which the Scriptures might supply for such an
hour of need.' (P.16)
FAMILY SCHISM
The Vicar of Wrexhill from this early stage imposes his divisive message upon
a family previously at ease with itself. Following the reading of the will, made
in favour of Mrs Mowbray, the vicar succeeds in driving a wedge between mother
and son by insinuating false emotions to the transparently open and honest
Charles.
Almost immediately this 'canting' vicar succeeds in assessing the vulnerable
characters and targets them for his message which will place them in the
community of the saved leaving those who will not heed his message, to hell and
damnation. Mrs Mowbray and her youngest daughter Fanny are shown to be
vulnerable following the death of Mr Mowbray. However, Helen and the recently
bereaved friend, Rosalind, are typical of the young female heroine so often
portrayed by Fanny Trollope as perceptive and strong in spite of youth.
Not only does the Vicar succeed in creating schism within the family unit but
also creates a situation by which Sir Gilbert Harrington, a valued family
friend, is alienated. The Vicar continually depicts Helen as an undutiful
daughter for continuing to retain old friendships. He works his way into the
bereaved widow's confidence by sly and underhand innuendoes. At dinner following
the visit made by Helen and Rosalind to Sir Gilbert Mrs Mowbray 'addressed not a
single word' to Helen. 'This was partly owing to the feeling of displeasure
which had recently been so skilfully fastened in her breast...' (P.66) The
secrecy which had been introduced by the Vicar is contrasted to the 'spontaneous
confidence' of earlier days. 'Never was there less of this hateful mildew of
mystery than in the Mowbray family during the life of their father'. (P.67)
All the instances above could well indicate the corruption of any ordinary
person but how does the author convey the centrality of the evangelical message
as being at the root of the Vicar's corruption?
William Cartwright claims that providence has placed him at Wrexhill
in order to 'save souls'. In discussion of any kind from business matters to
marriage the language is overlaid by religious justifications. To question him
is to question God. 'For what are the ministers of the Most High placed amidst
the people? wherefore are their voices raised, so that all should hear them? Is
it not, my friend, because their lives, their souls, their bodies, are devoted
to the service of those committed by Providence to their care?' (P.61) The Vicar
acts well, 'The great natural gift of Mr Cartwright was the power of making his
voice, his eye, and the flexible muscles of his handsome mouth, echo, and, as it
were, reverberate and reiterate every word he spoke, giving to his language a
power beyond its own. What he now said was uttered rapidly, but with an apparent
depth and intensity of feeling that brought tears of mingled gratitude and
admiration to the eyes of Mrs Mowbray'. (P.61)
The image of God which the Vicar presents is meant to fill his hearers with
fear and trembling. Satan is never far away and he instills into the mind of Mrs
Mowbray that it is her duty to watch carefully over her youngest daughter who
has begun to show signs of being persuaded into faith However, one must be ever
vigilant as 'Satan doth indeed first seek to devour those that God seems to mark
more especially for his own...' (P.60) Schism of family and community is
justified by the Vicar as God's plan that the elect should be saved and the
reprobate committed to damnation. Eventually, 'Mrs Mowbray's other feelings were
made to merge in the one overwhelming influence of Calvinistic terror on one
side, and Calvinistic pride at presumed election on the other. The wily vicar
contrived in the course of a few months so completely to rule the heart and head
of this poor lady, that she looked upon her son Charles as a reprobate... For
Helen she was bade to hope that the time of election...with the Lord would come;
and in Fanny she was told to glory and rejoice;' (P.177)
Evangelicalism is shown to be a 'religion of the heart' and it is through the
emotions that the Vicar reaches his targeted 'victims'. Mrs Mowbray on leaving
with Helen for London commits Fanny and Rosalind into the care of Mr Cartwright.
He takes this opportunity to pray with his own daughter and Fanny. This is a
good example of extempore prayer so much beloved by Evangelicals.'...her
(Fanny) unbounded love and admiration for Mr Cartwright rendered it absolutely
impossible for her to conceive it wrong, and she prepared herself to pray with
all the fervour of her young and ardent spirit'. (P.85) The prayer offered by Mr
Cartwright was 'accompanied by direful threatenings' which he followed with an
'ecstasy of enthusiastic rantings'. 'While imploring Heaven to soften the heart
of poor Fanny, who knelt weeping beside him like a Niobe, he rehearsed her
talents and good qualities, earnestly praying that they might not be turned by
the Prince of Darkness into a snare.' (P.86) 'Fanny was aware of all this strong
emotion; for though she uncovered not her own streaming eyes, she could not
mistake the trembling voice that pronounced its fervent blessing on her amidst
sobs.' (P.87) Rosalind on discovering this scene offers us a contrasting picture
of religion at that time. In her anger she reminds Fanny of earlier times: 'This
is not the sort of worship which your excellent father, or good Mr Wallace
either, would have approved.' ( P.88) To Mr Cartwright she is no less vehement;
'What sir. have you been saying to produce so terrible an effect on Miss
Mowbray? The prayers of the church, in the discipline of which she has been most
carefully bred up, produce no such paroxysm as these...' (P.88)
Over the coming months various families in the community are divided within
themselves and it is visibly plain who belongs to the Evangelical party.
Rosalind on walking into Fanny's room discovers her reading the Bible with Mr
Cartwright: '...her appearance was considerably changed since she met Miss
Torrington at breakfast. All her beautiful curls had been carefully straightened
by the application of a wet sponge; and her hair was now entirely removed from
her forehead, and plastered down behind her poor little distorted ears as
closely as possible'. (P.123)
The severity of outward appearance is used symbolically to demonstrate the
unnatural nature of Evangelicalism with its emphasis on control and suppression
of all that is best in human behaviour. Mary Richards is shown to be recovering
from past delusions when , '...a few of her curls began to reappear round her
face; her sad-coloured ribbons were exchanged for the bright tints that suited
so well with her clear brown skin: her laughing eyes began to recover their
brightness, and at last she whispered in her mother's ear,
'Forgive me, dearest mamma, for all my folly, my presumption. Forgive me,
dearest mother; and pray God to forgive me too!' (P.257)
The world of Mr Cartwright is one of total hypocrisy nowhere more obvious
than after his marriage to Mrs Mowbray. At a Fancy Fair given at Mowbray Park
now renamed Cartwright Park, we see clergymen and local dignitaries drinking
freely and behaving badly yet justifying it with hypocritical language.
One of the most celebrated of the regular London speakers, known at all
meetings throughout the whole evangelical season, having silently emptied a
bottle of claret, which he kept close to him, began, just as he had finished the
last glass, to recover the use of his tongue. His first words were, 'My king
has been paying me a visit.'
'Indeed!' said Mr Cartwright, whose attention was instantly roused by this
very interesting statement; 'where was the visit made, Mr White?'
'Even here, sir,' replied Mr White solemnly; 'here, since I have been sitting
silently at your hospitable board.'
'As how, sir?' inquired a certain Sir William Crompton, who was placed near
him. 'Do you mean that you have been sleeping, and that his Majesty has visited
you in your dreams?'
'The Majesty that I speak of, sir,' replied Mr White, 'is the King of Heaven,
and the Lord of Hosts.'
'What other could it be!' exclaimed Mr Cartwright, showing the whites of his
eyes, and appearing scandalized at the blunder. (P.313)
The previous occasion when Mowbray Park was similarly open was at the coming
of age of Charles Mowbray. Whilst the celebration then included food, drink and
genuine and acknowledged pleasure at the occasion there was an honesty, openness
and celebration of God's gifts which is so clearly lacking at the Fancy Fair
where the hypocrisy of the Evangelicals is shown to be snide and dishonest in
the extreme.
Nowhere is the hypocrisy and double standards of Mr Cartwright shown to such
good effect as in his relationships with women and particularly young women.
The abuse of power
Hardly a chapter goes by without a scene including Mr Cartwright's abuse of
his position as a vicar of the Church of England. It could be said that he took
advantage of the situation in which many middle and upper class women found
themselves in the nineteenth century. Much of their lives were spent in
homemaking and in the company of other women. Religion gave them both the
justification for their role in life and an opportunity for fulfilment in
religiously connected activity outside the home. Younger women and adolescent
girls would be particularly susceptible to the attentions of clergymen. The need
for religious support surrounding bereavement isn't confined to nineteenth
century Evangelicalism but it would be true to say that it was more vital then
to try and reach potential converts at this emotional time. Mr Cartwright's
singling out of those most vulnerable is shown in its extreme and the author
uses this story-line to make a valid criticism, as she sees it, of an
Evangelical practice of which she totally disapproves.
Mr Cartwright has no trouble in persuading the majority of women in the novel
that by working towards and organising a Fancy Fair in support of Mr Isaacs'
mission to the natives of Fababo they will be doing the work of the Lord. One of
the central characteristics of Evangelicals was activism in their faith plus the
need to convert and win souls for God. We read that, '...our good Mrs Simpson's
sweet little cherub Minima is furnished with a box, which she will carry
round...' (P.266) At that time this was a method of including and encouraging
children to take part in the missionary zeal of the period. Fancy Fairs and
Bazaars raised a considerable amount of funds to support both missionary
activities and other philanthropic ventures. (For further information on this
topic read Women and
Philanthropy in 19th Century England - Part One: The Power of the Purse -
by F.K. Prochaska )
'f all the ladies present,' continued Mrs Cartwright, 'and such of their
friends as they can prevail upon to join them, will only occupy themselves
during the ensuing month in the making of pincushions, the composition of
tracts, the sketching some dozens of Saviour's and Apostles' heads, together
with a few thousand allumettes and pen-wipers, we should, I have no doubt,
collect a sum not only very serviceable to the exemplary Mr Isaacs, but highly
honourable to ourselves.' (P.266)
Needless to say the heroines of our story are not won over by the 'charm' of
the Vicar and remain aware of his hypocritical behaviour. Rosalind and Henrietta
discuss the Vicar's abuse of power after '...the elegant banquet drew the
company from their tracts and their talk to the dinner parlour; and iced
champagne refreshed the spirits of all, but particularly of those exhausted by
the zealous warmth with which they had discussed the sinful adherence to good
works so frightfully prevalent among the unregenerated clergy of the Church of
England and Ireland. This was a theme upon which the majority of the company at
the Cartwright Park meetings never wearied.' (P.269)
Henrietta tells Rosalind that her father '...values pleasure fully as much as
other men ...struggle for riches with anxiety as acute, and hold it with a grasp
as tight, as any human beings can do...but that POWER is dearer to them than
either, is a truth well known to all who have sat within the conventicle, and
watched its professors, as I have done.' (P.270) She then goes on to point out
just how great is the 'minute tyranny of interference, ... dearer than the
breath of life'. (P.271) This is an interference which has extended the power of
her father into the homes and lives of people in the community. It is this same
need to exercise his power over every details of those souls under his care
which justifies his actions in reading incoming and outgoing mail before
deciding whether it should be delivered to the intended recipient and which
persuades Mrs Mowbray, both before and following her marriage to him, that she
is not capable of writing on her own behalf but is well advised to copy out
words prepared by Mr Cartwright.
The characteristic which comes in for the most biting satire from Fanny
Trollope, is Mr Cartwright's behaviour with young women and adolescent girls.
The behaviour of Fanny is shown to be that of a young girl in love for the first
time. Even when not in Mr Cartwright's company she continually thinks of him and
what he would say and do in response to her efforts. Following his encouragement
she develops her skills to write poetry and hymns. They are justified as being
religious yet the dividing line is blurred between love poems and sacred
writing. '...but the employment soon conjured up, as she proceeded, the image of
Mr Cartwright, and the pious smile with which he would receive it from her
hands, and the soft approval spoken more by the eyes than the lips, and the holy
caress - such, according to his authority, as that with which angel meets angel
in the courts of heaven.' (P.126) Her whole world is bound up with that of Mr
Cartwright and behaviour which would normally be forbidden is justified under
the guise of religion. He meets her in secret, he constantly caresses her, and
he spends time alone in her room speaking of religious matters and reading the
Bible. One day Mr Cartwright on leaving Mrs Mowbray's room met Fanny and asked
if he might speak with her privately in her room:
'Oh yes,' she replied with all the zealous piety which distinguishes the sect
to which she belonged, whenever their consent is asked to do or suffer anything
that nobody else would think it proper to do or suffer, - 'Oh, yes! - will you
come now Mr Cartwright?'
'Yes my dear child, it is now that I wish to come;' - and in another moment
the Vicar of Wrexhill and his beautiful parishioner were sitting tête-à-tête
on the sofa of the young lady's dressing-room.
As usual with him on all such occasions, he took her hand. 'Fanny!' he began,
- 'dear, precious Fanny! you know not how much of my attention - how many of my
thoughts are devoted to you!'
'Oh! Mr Cartwright, how very, very kind you are to think of me at all!'
(P.208)
The conversations between Fanny and her friend Mary appear to be those of
young adolescents besotted by boys yet they are talking about a mature
clergyman, a father with children older then themselves. 'If he were a hundred
and forty, with that countenance and that manner, I should still think him the
handsomest and most perfect person I ever saw.' (P.42)
Throughout there is much trembling, blushing and emotional intensity. He
gently pushes 'back her redundant curls...' to which Fanny's '...young heart
beat with a timid and most truly pious feeling of fear...' (P.85) Mrs Mowbray is
no less susceptible and the wooing which precedes a final declaration of love is
wrapped in religious language. The Vicar first terrorises her in regard to the
religious state of her children: 'It is borne in upon my mind, my dear and
gentle friend, that there is but one chance left to save that deeply-perilled
soul from the everlasting gulf of gnawing woms and eternal flame.' (P.200)
Having verbally beaten her into a state of submission, 'Mr Cartwright looked
down upon her, turned away for one short instant to rebolt the door, and then,
raising his eyes to heaven, and dropping on his knees beside her, he threw his
arms around her, impressed a HOLY KISS upon her brow...' (P.201)
The pious Louisa Richards defended the Vicar after being seen by her sister
Mary receiving a kiss from him, she declared: '...indeed there never had been
anything but the purest evangelical love between them; and the the kiss about
which silly Mary made such a fuss, was nothing in the world but a kiss of holy
peace and brotherly love.' (P.257)
Of course the Vicar cannot protect the religious facade behind which lurks a
man who will ultimately use both physical and emotional abuse towards family
members. We are given a true picture of the extent of this abuse through one of
the heroines of the story, his daughter Henrietta. 'Of Henrietta he never
thought much. She had given him some trouble, and he had used somewhat violent
measures to bring her into such outward training as might not violently shock
his adherents and disciples.' (P.262) She finally admits to Rosalind that she is
indeed an atheist. At this period such an admission could result in being
ostracised from society. However, it is on this point that the more gentle
religion of Rosalind overcomes the Evangelicalism of the Vicar of Wrexhill. On
her deathbed Henrietta at last finds peace but only after publicly denouncing
the religion of her father. She declares that 'I found fraud, pride, impurity,
and falsehood, mix with your deeds through every day you lived! ...And then it
was, father, that I became an unbeliever! an hardened infidel! a daring atheist!
If it were true that God had chosen you, then it was true my soul rejected him!
- Yes Rosalind, dear Rosalind, - do not shudder at my words. It was because I
found no truth in him, that I could not, would not believe his doctrine true.
But you - good, kind, and innocent - I believe you.' (P.337)
Conclusion
The novel works as a satirical attack on the extremes of Evangelicalism and
is useful primary source material for learning how those not of its persuasion
considered its evil influence on social and religious life. The reader is never
left in any doubt as to which party the author belongs. However, if
Evangelicalism was only as portrayed in the book it is difficult to believe that
it could influence anything for good. Yet the high moral ground which it took
spilled over beyond the bounds of Evangelicalism and influenced much that was
good. In a rapidly industrialising society with urban conditions which left many
destitute Evangelicalism brought levels of organisation to tackling the evils
and social problems of the day. To modern readers Fanny Trollope comes across as
perceptive in cutting through the hypocrisy of her time yet it would be wrong to
think that this was the whole picture of Evangelicalism in the 1830s. Yet it
does give us a flavour of the religious ferment which was occurring in the
Churches of that time and it is this element which makes the book valuable
reading for those wishing to add to their understanding of the religion of that time.
THE ROLE OF RELIGION
IN
THE WIDOW BARNABY
This is not a
religious novel in any way yet in its implicit role there is much of interest.
It is often easy to overlook or downplay the influence of religious thought in
the life of the author. She was the daughter of a clergyman, her husband was the
son of a country parson. When her children were growing up, many of her friends
and acquaintances were clergymen. It is thought that the Evangelical Mr.
Cunningham who was the Vicar of St. Mary's in Harrow and who lived at 'Julians',
the home which the Trollope family had built and where they hoped to live if
finances had permitted, was the blueprint for the Vicar of Wrexhill. As in
Fanny's life so in this book, religion is an accepted fact underpinning the
values by which the characters conduct themselves.
As in many of the author's other works it is clear to see that she has little
time for the hypocrisy and show which she considers to be inherent in
Evangelicalism but rather places her heroines in the context of a quiet and
thoughtful religion which results in philanthropic gestures discreetly carried
out and love of nature. However, It must be noted that her scathing portrayals
on Evangelicalism tell us far more about the author than about Evangelicalism
itself although our author does demonstrate the religious ferment of the day. It
is difficult to believe that this cultural force which shaped much of nineteenth
century politics, economics, moral and social life could have duped so many of
the leading figures of the day if it was only the cant and hypocrisy as
described by Fanny Trollope. A word of caution is therefore advised before
making hasty judgements based on our author's works alone.
Martha Compton - The Widow Barnaby
It is easy to overlook the fact that Martha Compton, born in the last decade
of the eighteenth century, was the granddaughter and daughter of clergymen. In
some respects the author depicts them as weak men but intrinsically kind.
Clergymen who lived in a time before the role of vicar became professionalised.
Clergymen who owned land and took for granted that 'following in father's
footsteps' was the natural thing to do even if it took the young Josiah 'three
trials and two failures' before he could 'assume the prefix of reverend before
his name'.(P1) It is difficult to think of the Josiah Comptons worrying about
adherence to creeds and dogma or experiencing schisms within their churches.
Elizabeth Compton, the spinster daughter, is the character who practises this
unpresuming religion yet she is also a person with great strength of character
in spite of her physical drawbacks. Josiah however is shown to be weak and
ineffectual, marrying a woman who is superficial and showy. A woman, who half a
century later, we could never imagine as a vicar's wife.
With such a mother it is hardly surprising that Martha also turns out to be
superficial and showy. The only occasions in the book where Martha is shown to
consider the question of religion is when it might put her in a position of
being noticed and remarked upon. Everything, even religion, is a matter of
appearance.
There is an interesting episode which illustrates the contrast between parish
church and chapel. (P128/129) The Widow Barnaby recognised the 'the following
day being Sunday was one of great importance to strangers about to be initiated
in the society of the place'. She had hoped to go with her sister-in-law Mrs.
Peters who had managed to arrange the situation to avoid accompanying the vulgar
widow. Martha is advised to go to the chapel which 'would be more likely to
offer accommodation to strangers than the parish church, that being always
crowded by the resident families'. (P129) Being seen is the top priority and 'on
this occasion she came forth in a new dress of light grey gros-de Naples, with a
gay bonnet of paille de riz , decorated with poppy blossoms...her
well-oiled ringlets half hiding her large, coarse, handsome face, her eyes set
off by a suffusion of carmine, and her whole person redolent of musk'. (P129)
However, no one of fashion was there and it turned out to be very dull. 'Long
and wearisome did the steep up-hill walk back to her lodgings appear after this
unpropitious act of devotion'. (P130)
We hear nothing of religion touching the life of the Widow until the book's
end when she meets and rescues a Mr. O'Donagough in prison for debt as a result
of gambling. He is a likeable character who is advised by a gentleman who 'was
now doing exceedingly well as a preacher to an independent congregation of
ranting fanatics'.(P335) He gave Mr. O'Donagough 'some excellent advice as to
his future principles and conduct, giving him to understand that the turf, even
to those who were the most fortunate, never answered so well as the line of
business he now followed'. (P335)
Fanny Trollope uses this story-line to launch a satirical attack upon the
newness, lack of roots and depth which she felt was exhibited in many of the new
independent congregations. The Widow in looking for an engagement for Mr.
O'Donagough approaches a Mr. Newbirth who in 'an exemplary manner' had 'turned
from horse-racing to preaching' (P369) She explains that 'Mr. Patrick
O'Donagough...was not brought up to the church', (P369) only to find that the
phrase 'grated against the feelings of Mr. Newbirth, and his brow contracted,
and his voice became exceedingly solemn'. (P370) He said, 'I know Mr. Patrick
O'Donagough, who, like many other shining lights, was not brought up to the
church; but has, nevertheless, received the title of reverend from the
congregation which has the best right to bestow it, even that to which he has
been called to preach'. (P370)
The Widow Barnaby does secure her marriage to Reverend O'Donagough yet the
resolution of this particular volume has an ironical twist. The new Reverend and
his wife decide to go out to Modeltown in Australia as missionaries yet the
Widow Barnaby has first to change her old habits. The Reverend 'had a hard
struggle before he could obtain the straightening of a single ringlet, or the
paling, in the slightest degree, the tint of her glowing rouge. At compliance on
this point, he should feel it his duty, passionately as he adored her, to delay
their marriage till she could be induced, for his sake, to conform herself a
little more to the customs and manners of the sect to which he belonged'. (P373)
Note that our author considers the new dissenting congregations as 'sects'
rather than 'denominations.
As a finale the couple meet with her niece and aunt who are being entertained
at a dinner-party being given by Mrs. Peters. The Widow Barnaby with her
puritanical appearance nevertheless conveys her hypocrisy and utter vulgarity by
judging all by appearances which have now been reversed. 'And upon my word, aunt
Compton, you are grown mighty smart too in your old age. Mercy on me!...Vanity
of vanities!...all is vanity!'.(P397)
Earlier in the book she had considered that her niece, Agnes, could well make
money by singing on the stage. She appears shocked to see her niece so well
attired and asks, 'You have not been singing on the stage, I hope?...Your uncle
would be dreadfully shocked at such a thing; for he says that stage-plays are an
abomination'. (P397)
Through the figure of the Widow Barnaby our author conveys the symbolic
importance of dress and costume in religious terms. More than that she
successfully demonstrates that the basic integrity and depth of Miss Compton and
Agnes is not dependent on dress in contrast to the shallow superficiality of the
Widow Barnaby. In doing so she implicitly shows that true religion, in her
consideration, is not something to be flaunted but integrated into the whole
person.
Miss Compton - Agnes - Mrs. Wilmot - Mrs. Peters
Through these characters we see
religion of which the author approves. A quiet and unpresuming faith yet one
which produces strong women who are able to overcome the various problems which
life throws at them.
Miss Compton is both the daughter and sister of clergymen. We
should remember that so often in the early nineteenth century before the
'professionalisation' of the clergy got underway that sons of clergymen would
often follow in their father's footsteps rather than responding to a special
'calling'. Such was the case with son Josiah who became Curate of Silverton.
However, it is the males of the family who are shown to be weak and the
physically bent daughter who proves to be made of sterner stuff making the most
of the talents which she is given. (This central theme might well have been
drawn from the New Testament Parable of the Talents). Due to her physical needs
the father makes provision for her by dividing the inheritance between brother
and sister.
It is thought that Miss Compton was based on a favourite aunt of Fanny
Trollope who lived a modest life in Devon. Her name was Fanny Bent which might
have prompted our author to give Miss Compton a 'bent' back. Miss Compton is
thoughtful for her future with every intention of remaining self-sufficient.
There is no show of ostentatious living but rather she rents out the inherited
property retaining only sufficient space in which to live with easy access to a
garden where she spends many hours reading novels and tending her bees.
She is reflective and presented in stark contrast to her niece,
the Widow Barnaby, with whom she stays on the death of her brother.
When Miss Compton reached her room, she found a tiny morsel of fire
just lighted in a tiny grate; and as the season was November, the hour nine
P.M., and the candle she carried in her hand not of the brightest description,
the scene was altogether gloomy enough. But not even to save herself from
something greatly worse, would she at that moment have exchanged its solitude
for the society of Mrs. Barnaby, although she had been sure of finding her in
the best-lighted room, and seated beside the brightest fire that ever blazed.
So wrapping around her the stout camlet cloak by the aid of which she had
braved the severity of many years' wintry walks to church, she sat down in the
front of the little fire, and gave herself up to the reflections that crowded
upon her mind.
We learn that Miss Compton placed her great-niece, Agnes, with 'a clergyman's
family in which young ladies were received for a stipend of fifty pounds a year,
and treated more like the children of affectionate parents than the pupils of
mercenary teachers'. (P44) This practise of 'taking in pupils' would have been
common amongst poorly paid clergymen of that time. Mrs. Wilmot was 'lady-like
and very intelligent' whilst 'the venerable father of the family and of the
parish, by his gentle manners and exemplary character, ensured exactly the sort
of respectability in the home she ( Miss Compton ) sought for the little
Agnes, which she considered as its most essential feature'. (P45)
The four women; Miss Compton, Agnes, Mrs. Wilmot and Mrs. Peters, are never
defined explicitly by their religious practises yet in all cases it is implicit
that religious values underpin their behaviour. We know that the three mature
women attend Church of England services and can presume that Agnes would also
attend whilst living with the clergyman's family. The glimpses we are given of
their thoughts on God are not those of an Evangelical God of vengeance who had
demanded the substitutionary atonement of Christ be made for humankind all of
whom are born in sin. Only in the 'blood of Christ' could men and women be
saved. Rather Agnes experiences the God in nature who is good and kind. Out in
the open air and away from the oppression of her aunt Martha (the Widow Barnaby)
she found: 'to her equal delight and astonishment...that she was one of the most
particularly happy people in the world, wanting nothing but sun, sweet air, and
a lovely landscape, to make her forget that such a thing as sorrow existed; and
the only thought that threw a shadow upon the brightness of her spirit, was that
which suggested that she must have been very wicked to have doubted for a moment
the goodness of God, who had formed this beautiful world on purpose to make
people happy'. (P101) This is probably a reflection of the freedom which our
author experienced in the religious life of her youth as the daughter of a
clergyman of the mid eighteenth century a freedom which she felt had been
compromised by the rise of Evangelicalism.
Just because religion in the lives of these four women is played down does
not imply weakness. Although Mrs. Peters, the Widow's sister-in-law, finds
herself having to endure the vulgarity of this relative both at home and
socially, her endurance does not extend to accepting that the peace of her
religious observances at church should be disturbed: '...a compact had been
entered into between Mrs. Peters and her son and daughters, by which it was
agreed that, on condition of her permitting them to join her party at the balls,
she was always to be allowed to go to church in peace'.(P128)
Conclusion
It is against this picture of peace and respectability that the brashness of
Widow Barnaby is set. What is unsaid is the powerful backdrop for the gushing
Widow. It is the outrageous which makes a powerful story-line. The
happy-ever-after-ending for our young heroine is concluded prior to the grand
finale featuring the vulgar Widow entering for a third time on 'the holy state
of matrimony'.(P401)
The Widow Barnaby is a book which appears initially to contain little which
can tell us of religion in the early nineteenth century but on closer
examination it becomes clear that religion as experienced and understood by the
author provided the vehicle by which the characters and story-line are created.
We would have expected to discover much about the religion of the time as the
book begins at the home of the eldest cousin, Mrs Morrison, who is the wife of
Dr Morrison, Bishop of Solway.
Instead of the author reverting to her customary attack on the Evangelical
wing of the Established Church of England she gives us a Bishop who is
complaisant and as ready as any social-climber of the day to accommodate himself
to any advantageous situation. Hospitality was very important to the Bishop and
although not 'generally speaking, an extravagant man' (P4) he did enjoy giving
dinners.
Being a Bishop we would expect his character to have some religiosity but he
is portrayed as rather a lazy and ineffectual person both as a church leader and
a husband. It is interesting to note there are no children in this marriage and
it is not too difficult to understand why Mrs Morrison endows her considerable
energies elsewhere.
Although the Bishop plays only a minor role in the book his character is
shown to be shallow. One gets the impression that he is too lazy and 'worldly'
to make the effort to understand real people: in other words he typifies the
superficiality of all that was wrong in the high society of that time.
He does not even notice Laura growing from childhood into a beautiful young
woman even though it is happening within his own home. But why should he; what
is there to commend this poor relation? However, he does 'respect' her father,
heir to the Lexington estates, who is no more than a base scoundrel and in spite
of his abandonment of Laura does not wish to see him upset in any way. At least
the Bishop is consistent in having 'an eye to the main chance' and no sooner
does it become obvious that Laura has become the favorite of the wealthy Sir
Joseph Lexington than she becomes the Bishop's favorite too.
Fortunately the Bishop's wife is shown to be a much more perceptive and
energetic figure who can see through the hypocritical facades which people show
to the world. She knows exactly how to manage the Bishop without him realising
it.
If the Bishops in the first half of the nineteenth-century were indeed
anything like the Bishop of Solway it is not too difficult to understand why the
fervor of both the Evangelicals and the Anglo-Catholics saw the need for a more
vibrant Christianity. One would find it difficult to see the Bishop of Solway
being overly worried by either of the above branches of the Anglican Church of
the time and even less concerned by the questions being raised by the more
liberal Broad Church.
What is interesting is Fanny Trollope's incisive portrayal and satirical
comments on yet another churchman. She does not reserve her scathing commentary
to the Evangelical community alone. Could it be her earlier life as a
clergyman's daughter in a relaxed religious environment in the latter part of
the eighteenth-century prevented her going along the same road as George Eliot
who was forty years her junior?